元宇宙合规报告(十七)虚拟资产犯罪之DeFi洗钱

肖飒lawyerPublished on 2022-03-15Last updated on 2022-03-18

Abstract

在虚拟货币反洗钱工作在全球范围内取得卓越进展的2022年,单纯利用比特币、USDT等币正在日益减少,流窜在虚拟世界的幕后黑手们试图寻找新的犯罪工具来替代或改造传统洗钱手段。

在上周的公号文章中,飒姐团队为大家详细介绍了虚拟资产领域,关于NFT洗钱犯罪的最新动向(详情见文章)。通过一系列的数据我们可以发现,在虚拟货币反洗钱工作在全球范围内取得卓越进展的2022年,单纯利用比特币、USDT等币正在日益减少,流窜在虚拟世界的幕后黑手们试图寻找新的犯罪工具来替代或改造传统洗钱手段。

事实证明,NFT和DeFi正在悄无声息地成为洗钱新工具。当前,流向NFT市场和各大交易平台的非法资金占比较小但增长速度飞快,具有小额、快速、隐蔽性强等特点。与之相比,利用DeFi洗钱的犯罪分子则更加嚣张,目前已经有不少政府部门和区块链数据分析公司观测到大量非法虚拟资产正在流向DeFi项目,引发了对于分散式金融项目发展前景的普遍担忧。

一、 DeFi是什么?

相信长期关注区块链技术发展和币圈的伙伴们对DeFi一定不陌生,DeFi全称Decentralised Finance中文名叫“分散化金融”或“去中心化金融”,为了避免歧义,本文统一将其称为DeFi。

与世界上大多数事物不同,DeFi没有一个确切的诞生时间,或者说,区块链技术+金融的想法自2008年比特币诞生以来就与其相伴而生。但由于比特币的脚本具有较大的局限性,直到2015年Vitalik Buterin在比特币的基础上创建了可扩展性更强、可搭建智能合约的以太坊,DeFi才真正找到了落地生根的土壤。

从传统金融的视角来看,DeFi属于庞大金融体系中极其微末的一部分,被涵摄于虚拟资产和金融科技中,但就是这小小一颗诞生于传统金融血液里的种子,却蕴含着颠覆整个金融世界的力量。许多人相信,DeFi代表了金融的未来发展方向:惠普金融。任何能接触网络的人都可以无门槛地使用DeFi,包括极度贫困地区或其他无法获得银行金融服务的人群。

确实,理想中的DeFi将会在保障个人信息安全的同时给使用者带来诸多便利,包括出借资金收取利息、获取贷款进行融资、购买境外金融产品、24小时开放交易、无信用审核汇款等等,可以真正意义上实现“个人具有完全控制力”的惠普金融。为了铺展DeFi的美好蓝图,以太坊还为用户做了一个DeFi与传统金融的对照表(见下图)。但是现实往往与理想出入甚多,DeFi美好的初衷并不能掩盖其前路的曲折。

注:表格来自ethereum官网,网址:https://ethereum.org/

如果说2021年是DeFi的牛市,那2022年初就是DeFi的熊市。根据defipulse数据显示,自DeFi之夏(大约是2020年5月)诞生出COMP代币流动性挖矿项目和Yearn Finance等迄今为止依然活跃的顶级DeFi项目后,DeFi的所有关键指标都得到了显著改善,总锁定资金在2021年甚至几度突破1000亿美元大关。

注:数据来自defipulse官网,网址:https://www.defipulse.com/

但是,这样的热度是不持久的,起起伏伏才是市场常态,截至本文发表,根据defipulse数据显示,DeFi市场总锁定资金目前已跌至741.3亿美元,90天来,自2021年12月28日高点下跌后整体表现一直差强人意。同时,DeFi自身所具有的局限性正逐渐进入监管机关的视野。

注:数据来自defipulse官网,网址:https://www.defipulse.com/

近日,美国证券交易委员会(以下简称“SEC”)官员Caroline Crenshaw针对DeFi发表了文章:《关于去中心化金融风险、法规和机遇的声明》(DeFi Risks, Regulationgs, And Opportunities)作为SEC官员,其在文章中表达了对DeFi自身缺陷的担忧:虽然DeFi提供了更多的投资机会和融资渠道,但这个不受监管的市场受到结构性限制的影响,主要表现在:(1)投资缺乏透明度;(2)假名制使市场容易受到难以检测的操纵。

注:文章可在SEC官网获取,网址:https://www.sec.gov/

DeFi逐渐成了一个不公平市场,散户往往成为最先被割的韭菜。此外,DeFi智能合约中存在可被黑客利用的漏洞导致大量虚拟货币被盗、某些DeFi项目被注入被盗资金,逐渐沦为洗钱工具等问题开始引发普遍关注,设法对DeFi进行监管已经势在必行。

二、 DeFi监管现状

当前,我国法律体系中并不存在针对DeFi的规制,但根据9.24通知,涉及虚拟货币的DeFi项目在我国均属于非法金融活动。另外,擅自发售股票、公司、企业债券或其他各类金融产品视具体情况还有可能违反我国《银行法》《信托法》《证券法》《基金法》等法律,以及《期货交易管理条例》《防范和处置非法集资条例》等行政法规、规章,情节严重的甚至可能构成犯罪。可以说,DeFi项目目前基本为我国所禁止。与我国类似,同样对虚拟资产采取强监管措施的美国则在考虑针对DeFi进行专门立法。

由于美国并没有监管DeFi的专门机构,目前是由多个联邦相关机构共同对DeFi的各方面实施监管,例如美国司法部、金融犯罪执法网络中心、国税局、商品期货交易委员会和证券交易委员会(SEC)等。尽管很多机构共同监管DeFi,但这些监管措施目前收效甚微,DeFi项目与传统金融相比投资风险并没有因多部门监管而变得更小。根本原因在于,当前美国对DeFi的监管是不完整,SEC官员Caroline Crenshaw认为,参与DeFi的投资者一般不会得到和美国其他受监管市场同等的合规性保障和强有力的信息披露要求。例如,各类DeFi参与者的活动和资产涉及证券和与证券有关的行为时,虽处于SEC管辖范围内,但DeFi参与者没有进行相应的注册,使得SEC监管措施落空。

在国际监管方面,2021年10月,FATF(反洗钱金融行动特别工作组)更新了关于《虚拟资产和虚拟资产服务提供商基于风险的方法的更新指南》(以下简称“指南”) 对DeFi进行了新的定义,将某些DeFi项目的提供者在特定条件下定义为虚拟资产服务提供商(VASP),在反洗钱义务方面,这些VASP应满足传统金融公司的反洗钱标准,进行同样严格程度的KYC。

虽然币圈大部分人历来反对将DeFi视为VASP加以监管,因为许多DeFi项目仅是帮助和促进虚拟资产在用户个人钱包之间进行转移(通过底层智能合约根据自身代码自动执行用户钱包之间的交易),未直接持有用户的资金。然而,FATF的最新指南仍然表示,如果DeFi协议履行类似VASP的功能,例如促进了虚拟资产的交换或传输,仍然可以作为VASP进行监管。此类被识别为VASP的DeFi项目提供者应该由各国根据“控制或影响”来决定具体监管措施,当该DeFi项目“实际上存在一个有控制权或足够影响力的人时,司法管辖区应该使用VASP的定义它并将其纳入反洗钱义务主体中”。

三、 初探DeFi洗钱

目前,根据权威区块链数据分析咨询公司Chainalysis于近期发布的《2022年加密犯罪报告-原始数据和基于加密货币的犯罪研究》(The 2022 Crypto Crime Report Original data and research into cryptocurrency-based crime),DeFi项目在2021年一整年中接收到的非法资金与上一年度相比显著增长,占所有被监测到的非法资金的17%(价值约14.6亿美元),这一数据在2020年仅为2%,同比增长约1900%。

与此相对的是,在传统虚拟资产洗钱中通常起到核心作用、吸收最多非法资金的中心化交易所在2021年吸收了约为47%的非法资金,与上一年度相比并未增长多少。

(一) 被盗资金正疯狂涌入DeFi

DeFi之所以在2021年呈现爆发式增长也许与DeFi协议中存在大量漏洞,导致虚拟货币等各种资产频繁被盗有关。数据显示,在2021年中,诈骗、暗网、勒索软件发挥稳定,被盗资金占非法资金总量的份额却急剧增加。全年度被盗加密货币价值约为32亿美元,比2020年同比增长了516%。被盗资金的72%(约22亿)来自DeFi项目。

一个有趣的事实是,实施了盗窃行为的犯罪分子在(通过DeFi漏洞)窃取赃款后更加偏好使用DeFi项目来进行洗钱(颇具原汤化原食的哲学意味),而实施了诈骗行为的犯罪分子则更加倾向于使用old schol(老派)的中心化交易所进行洗钱。

背后的主要原因在于,实施诈骗的犯罪分子人情练达、处事圆滑,更擅长欺瞒哄骗却不擅长计算机技术,因此更加倾向于选择洗钱技术门槛较低的中心化交易所洗钱。通过计算机系统和DeFi协议漏洞入侵加密货币平台窃取虚拟资产则更加要求犯罪分子具备专业计算机技术和专业知识,事实证明,DeFi洗钱虽然隐蔽高效,与中心化交易所相比更加安全好用,但技术门槛也更高。

另外,值得一提的是,DeFi诈骗同样需警惕。正是由于DeFi项目普遍存在结构性障碍,各式各样的骗局正利用其匿名化、缺乏透明度的特点疯狂圈钱。2021年一整年来犯罪分子通过DeFi骗局获取的非法资金增长了82%,共获取了超过78亿美元的加密货币或其他虚拟资产,其中超过28亿美元被一种名为“rug pulls”的骗局斩获(在rug pulls骗局中,犯罪分子往往通过虚设看似真实可信的投资项目诱骗投资人资金,最后再提桶跑路割韭菜)。最大的rug pulls骗局当属21年的Thodex案,Thodex是一家虚拟货币交易所,该交易所在骗取被害人约25亿美元的加密货币后,实控人立刻卷款跑路,目前尚未被抓获。

(二) DeFi洗钱常见手段

要了解DeFi洗钱手法就要先了解DeFi的基本运作规则。一般来说,DeFi目前是通过跨链来解决质押问题的,假设现在我们想质押BTC来换取ETH,跨链的名字叫A链,A链上的货币叫A币,那么我们需要进行以下操作:

1. 先将我们要抵押的BTC锁定在A链的某一地址,以生成一个代表这个BTC通证的A-BTC;

2. 随后在A链上使用智能合约抵押这个A-BTC,生成对应的A币;

3. 使用A币购买其他A-ETH;

4. 将A-ETH放出,转化为ETH

此时我们就成功将我们持有的BTC通过跨链质押的方式转换成了ETH,全过程将由DeFi智能合约执行,如果出现违约情形则质押人的BTC将会被罚没。这就是DeFi跨链质押的基本原理。

2021年5月,网络黑客利用一个智能合约代码漏洞,从一个叫Spartan的DeFi项目中窃取了约3000万美元的加密货。黑客随后先是将这些资金中的大部分通过跨链转换为X-ETH和X-BTC(即任意跨链生成的BTC或ETH代币),再利用两个或两个以上专门进行跨链交易的DeFi项目,将资金跳转到以太坊区块链打包转换,换取新的BTC和ETH。最后,本案中的黑客把这些资金发送到了一个叫Tornado. Cashde的专用于洗钱的混合器,实现黑钱洗白。

DeFi洗钱的流程看似步骤并不多,但执行起来却相当复杂,频繁的跨链和资金跳转使得反洗钱工作更加艰难。且由于DeFi项目通常没有严格的KYC要求,且其仅促使虚拟资产流通而不直接控制用户资金,DeFi在识别和冻结非法资金方面存在重大缺陷,这也是为什么DeFi项目日益沦为洗钱工具的原因。

写在最后

惠普金融是DeFi的初心,理想中的DeFi确实是一个能惠及大众,促进全球经济发展的好东西。但现实中DeFi自身存在的诸多缺陷正在导致虚拟资产盗窃案和诈骗案频发,严重损害了DeFi的声誉和投资者的信心。

飒姐团队认为,虚拟资产反洗钱工作将会在2022年产生新的变化,整体会向专业化、国际化、数字化转变。各大监管机构不仅需要更加专业的人才,也更需要与VASP们建立渠道进行有效沟通。另外,国际合作、跨区域合作也是必不可少的,发达的全球网络使得网络犯罪也愈加复杂,单一国家和地区难以解决所有问题,只有精诚合作,才能一起向未来。

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